C P Snow and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Essay Example for Free

C P Snow and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Essay The scientist and the literary intellectual represent two cultures that are drifting apart from each other to such an extent that each is becoming increasing ignorant of and alien to the other, and because they must represent a body of knowledge as a whole, the consequence is that, though specialization, both the scientist and the intellectual are becoming effectively ignorant. Analysis: Though C P Snow claims to be speaking from a common ground between the two cultures that he envisages, I would argue that he is squarely placed in the scientific camp, and is by no means an intellectual. The manner in which he describes the rift between the two cultures has a distinct whiff of â€Å"shallow optimism† about it, which is the intellectual trait of the scientist. He advocates a simple dialogue between the two camps, which is very much reminiscent of Enlightenment thinking, which, before the advent of modern science, maintained that scientific education was the key to overcoming all social ills, and dialogue is but a means to educate each other. Snow is right in thinking that the two camps had grown apart unawares, and that at one time the cultured man endeavored to keep abreast of knowledge as a whole. But a fundamental point seems to escape him, and that is that modern science entails specialization, and neither does he suspect that it could be the root of the problem. While he acknowledges the existence of specialization in science, he tries to make out that it need not be divisive. His advocacy is of a holistic understanding, and on the strength of this plea he wants to effect a negotiation between the two camps. â€Å"Don’t carry your specializations too far,† he seems to be saying to both the scientists and the intellectuals, â€Å"because both the arts and the sciences are important, and one is in danger of becoming ignorant if one loses complete touch with any one of them. † The propositional content of his plea is correct, but the mistake is to sound it on the platform of modern science, which is divisive in its fundamental aspect. If one is committed to the scientific outlook one must live with specialization. We can take his example about the literary intellectual knowing the second law of thermodynamics as a testing point. He thinks that literary intellectual should at least know this law, which is accepted among physicists as being fundamentally significant. The equivalent feat of for a physicist would be of having read a play by Shakespeare, he suggests. But concentrating on the first point, why should one know the second law of thermodynamics if one will never question its validity? Science functions by constant questioning, and no scientist is ever trained to carry absolute dictates about with him. A literary intellectual may come to it in two ways. He may absorb it as in inviolable dictate, in which case it would not be science at all. Or he may come to it with the proper outlook of the scientist, which is the questioning one. If on the second trajectory, he may either be captivated by the question, or he may deem it not worth his while. If he is captivated, and he remains honest to his intellectual proclivities, then he cannot but pursue the question further, to the detriment of usual literary occupation. But it is more likely that he deems it not worth his while, in which case he returns to the field in which he is proficient and interested. And in due course, through neglect, he forgets how to state the scientific principle at all. If the last is the most natural and likeliest outcome, there is little point in pushing the second law of thermodynamics to the literary man. He has arrived at the status quo of not knowing the law at all, because that is the most natural state of affairs for him. In his situation he has better things to occupy himself with. For Snow to suggest that he ought to know the second law smacks of the arrogance of science, which is an arrogance rooted in naive optimism. Then again, a scientist should only be expected to enjoy a performance of Shakespeare, but certainly not to analyze it. Literary understanding calls for a profound understanding of human nature, which is certainly not part of the equipment of the scientist, who is trained to detect only empirical evidence. To tell a scientist to analyze King Lear would only confuse him, and if he tried too hard it would blunt his scientific perception. Snow would be better advised to consider the underlying philosophy of science, rather than external practice of the separate disciplines. It is a tacit understanding among members of the scientific society (of which literary intellectual are a part) that each practice his own specialization. Only the fruits are to be enjoyed by all, and this is the true egalitarian dimension of atomized science. The notion of â€Å"progress† comes from the understanding that the fruits of specialization confer on all, and it is this notion of progress that binds all members of scientific society. In its original conception modern science was defined as an egalitarianism of knowledge, and apparent loss of this is what Snow is lamenting. But such egalitarianism has not disappeared; it has only become impractical for a single person to keep up with the expanding body of knowledge. But more important than knowledge sharing is the philosophy that underpins it, and this philosophy still unites the particle physicist and the Shakespeare man. In calling for a new, and strained, egalitarianism of knowledge, Snow is only betraying his naivete of the world, which is the characteristic naivete of the scientist daring to speak on the humanities. Works Cited Snow, Charles Percy. The Two Cultures. Ed. Stefan Collini. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Summary of Chua Essay Example for Free

Summary of Chua Essay To change the emphasis of mainstream accounting research from hypothetico-deductivism and technical control assumptions to alternative views and obtain a fundamentally different and potentially rich research insights. Aim 1. To enable accounting researchers to self-reflect on the dominant assumptions that they share and, more importantly, the consequence of adopting this position. a. Limited the types of problems studied b. The use of research methods c. The possible research insights that could be obtained Author believes that such limitations can only become clear when they are exposed to the challenge of alternative world-views 2. To introduce such alternative set of assumptions, illustrate how they change both problem definition and solution, and offer research which is fundamentally different from that currently prevailing. 3. To argue that, not only are these alternative world-views different, they can potentially enrich and extend our understanding of accounting. Authors intended audience Positivist researchers, Public, Professionals, academics, All researchers Arguments presented to support main point Recent classifications of accounting perspectives Cooper (19830 ad Hopper ad Powel (1985) rely on the sociological work of Burrell and Morgan (1979) * Classification of accounting literature: 1. social sciences – includes assumptions about: * ontology of the social world (realism v. nominalism) * epistemology (positivism v. anti-positivism) * human nature (determinism v. voluntarism) * methodology (nomothetic v. ideographic) 2. society – characterizes it as orderly or subject to fundamental conflict Burell and Morgan (1979) Four paradigms used to classify accounting theories * Functionalist * Interpretive * Radical humanist Radical structuralist Problems persisted so accounting perspectives are differentiated with reference to underlying assumptions about knowledge, the empirical phenomena under study, and the relationship between theory and the practical world of human affairs. A classification of assumptions â€Å"knowledge is produced by people, for people, and is about people and their social and physical environm ent† Beliefs about knowledge Epistemological assumptions * Decide what to count about acceptable truth by specifying the criteria and process of assessing truth claims * E. . an epistemological assumption might state that a theory is considered true if it is repeatedly not falsifiable by empirical events Methodological assumptions * Indicate that research methods deemed appropriate for the gathering of valid evidence. * E. g. large-scale sample surveys or laboratory experiments that are â€Å"statistically sound† may be considered acceptable research methods. Both sets of assumptions are closely related. What is a â€Å"correct† research method will depend on how truth is defined. Belief about physical and social reality Ontology Object of Study * People may be viewed as identical to physical objects and be studied in the same manner * Criticism: people cannot be treated as natural scientific objects because they are self-interpretive beings who create the structures around them (Habermas, (1978) and winch (1958)) How people relate to one another and society as a whole * Every social theory makes assumptions about the nature of human society-is it, for example full of conflict or essentially stable and orderly Relationship between theory and practice Questions Purpose of knowledge in the world of practice, How may it be employed to better people’s welfare * Theory may be related to practice in several ways, each representing a particular value position on the part of the scientist (Fay (1975)). Unlike Burell and Morgan, this set of assumptions is used to assess the strengths and weaknesses of alternative perspectives in accounting. This is not an attempt to describe world-views in a value-free, non-evaluatory language

The Arguments For And Against Wind Power

The Arguments For And Against Wind Power The idea of wind power as a sustainable energy source and a renewable replacement to the current method(s) of energy generation manages to divide opinion almost evenly. Due to the realisation of the damage being caused to our planet there has been a major emphasis on exploring new ways of acquiring energy or a source of energy. There will inevitably be pros and cons of wind energy to consider, more specifically wind turbine energy and with the aid of research and data analysis to illustrate arguments for both sides it will be become comprehensible that there are feasible reasons as to why I am somewhat sceptical. Wind power is an environmentally friendly and natural alternative form of energy that can be conserved and made useful by wind turbines. Wind turbines convert this energy into electricity, an energy by which the majority of human being as a race has become entirely dependent on. Whilst the reliance on electricity has increased, so too has the recognition of the possible affects current methods of energy generation has on the planet. Wind turbines are being looked at as a possible replacement for fossil energy for example. We know for sure that one day methods like burning fossil fuels will no longer be available. There is no doubt that alternatives are to be found for the sake of the future of the planet. These alternatives must be renewable and if possible inexhaustible. The question is, are wind turbines the answer? Personally I feel that without a dramatic progression wind power may not have enough to maintain its challenge against the diminishing cheap natural gas and Middle Eastern Oil. However as we consume the final remaining years of the natural gas and oil the apparent affects on the Earth and therefore the necessity for a replacement is there for all to see. Wind power is certainly an issue that divides people. Globally the underlying support has begun to surface but there is still a lack of concern amongst those who dont feel there is much to worry about with regard to the current state of affairs or at least thats the way it seems The quality of wind turbine has progressed as the technology has been explored; one only has to look at the windmill which is an early example of todays wind turbine. With any debate like this though you must identify and evaluate the advantages and disadvantages. There are a number of issues that fall into both categories and I by assessing these issues in the context of importance I will portray my point of view http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Doesburgermolen.jpg/200px-Doesburgermolen.jpg(Figure 1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Doesburgermolen.jpg Above is the Does burger windmill. Windmills like these were used primarily to grind grain, although they were also used to pump water from low-lying land. Modern Wind turbines have evolved from this idea and usually consist of three blades. They are designed in such a way that the tip speed is high but torque ripple is low, thus giving it high reliability. An example is the turbine below in Denmark. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Turbine_aalborg.jpg/200px-Turbine_aalborg.jpg(Figure 2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turbine_aalborg.jpg History http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Wind_turbine_1888_Charles_Brush.jpg/200px-Wind_turbine_1888_Charles_Brush.jpg(Figure 3) The worlds first automatically operated wind turbine was built in Cleveland in 1888 by Charles F. Bush. It was as high as 60 feet, had a 12 kW turbine and weighed in excess of four tons. (Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wind_turbine_1888_Charles_Brush.jpg ) If you study the history of the wind turbine there are obvious trends of development. Initially the Persians light devices driven by drag proved to be pioneering and the majority of turbine ideas today are adapted in some way from this early interpretation. persian.bmp (27790 bytes)(Figure 4) It is clear that despite the lack of effectiveness due to the amount of the rotor that does not interact with the wind the idea however is a good on taking into consideration the times and resources. As you look further along in time you recognise the increased use of materials for drag devices. Go forward again and the modern era designs revert back to light efficient aerodynamic lift devices. Early windmills consisted of vertical sails which were an adaptation of the earliest use of wind power, sail boats. There were no drawings or documentation detailing the very first designs, but below is an example of a Persian design that was then copied by the Americans in the 19th Century. http://www.telosnet.com/wind/images/panemone.jpg(Figure 5) The earliest known use was for grain grinding and later for water pumping, and even as living quarters. The most modern have been the three blade design but the vertical designs have not been abandoned. The initial windmills found in Europe had the horizontal-axis configuration. Realising that structurally the efficiency would increase, they evolved to vertical-axis. This dealt with the problem of losing up to half of the rotor collection area. Over time there was an incremental improvement in efficiency of the windmill sail. The most advanced windmill sail shared the same characteristics of a wind turbine blade. The mills were almost like the electric motors of their time. Their applications ranged from irrigation, grain-grinding, the common water-mill, saw milling of timber, and even the processing of other commodities such as cocoa, paints and tobacco. In the 19th century the use of large tower mills in Europe declined as the popularity of steam engines increased. Further wind power development came from America where they introduced much smaller systems. An example of this is the steel-bladed water pumping windmill made in the Mid West of America in the late 1800s. http://www.telosnet.com/wind/images/fanmill.jpg(Figure 6) Most of these mills had tails to orient them into the wind, but some were weather-vaning mills that operated downwind of the tower. Speed control of some models was provided by hinging sections of blades, so that they would fold back like an umbrella in high winds, an action which reduced the rotor capture area to reduce thrust. The most important refinement of the American fan-type windmill was the development of steel blades in 1870. Steel blades could be made lighter and worked into more efficient shapes. They worked so well, in fact, that their high speed required a reduction (slow-down) gear to turn the standard reciprocal pumps at the required speed. (Darrell Dodge: http://www.telosnet.com/wind/early.html ) Figure 6 and quote above is an illustration of how the mills evolved and were getting ever closer to the turbine designs of today. It was from these types of designs and applications that in the late 19th sparked the idea of using these multi-blade windmill designs to generate electricity. Thus bringing about Charles F Bushs design shown in Figure 3. Despite its success for more than twenty years, there were limitations in its ability to produce electricity. The low speed and high solidity of the rotor failed to reach the output potential of a modern design. Cost One of the main arguments a cynic such as myself will bring to the table is the initial outlay required to erect a wind turbine. Although costs such as maintenance, subsequently may not be excessive the cost to build and put up just one can be. Professor Tony Day of London South Bank University provided an enlightening Costs Chart that highlights just some of the initial costs one faces when you think about installing a residential wind turbine. This chart was taken from a presentation given by Tony Day. It demonstrates the costs that were endured in an example project he undertook. This chart was also from the same presentation. These are typical costs that are to be expected for the installation of some wind turbines. These are ball park figures and an example of only some of the costs. It is likely that there are many more to consider which will only increase the outlay. The more productive in terms of power output turbines will cost a lot more. A large Megawatt wind turbine can cost up to 1 million US dollars and gets much more expensive when to consider a wind farm. Other Considerations One of the most important elements to consider is how much power we can create and make useful from a wind turbine or wind turbine farm. At present the reward maybe isnt as satisfying as the initial cost would demand. Aside from cost though to ensure optimum opportunity to produce high levels of energy the following must be regarded: High wind sites it is important to situate a wind farm in an area where it is very windy. An average minimum wind speed of 12-13 miles per hour (6 meters per second) is mandatory. Proximity of existing infrastructure High voltage lines can be extremely expensive to establish so it is important to consider their proximity to the turbines. Access Whether onshore or offshore you need to be able to access your site, initially to set it up but also subsequently to maintain it. Advantages Wind power is renewable, plentiful and much less affects the planet than power generated by fossil fuels. It is currently the UKs leading renewable energy source overtaking hydropower and currently accounts for around 2% of the UKs electricity supply. There are no waste products and wind is naturally, readily available. If a small home wind turbine was installed in an ideal location, you could be less dependent on fossil fuel energy and wind power could be a replacement, even if it is just boiling your kettle! Electricity that is generated by wind bares no CO2 emissions and cannot be exhausted and due to the simplicity of their mechanical processes, a wind turbines running cost can be next to nothing. Depending on where you seek your information it is suggested that in a prime location, position and if installed accurately a turbine designed to power a house can potentially provide about 30% of a households electricity. It will probably take up to ten years though for them to pay from themselves. Widen the scope to a large scale wind turbine farm and the potential is there for it to be a big player within energy generation game, unfortunately it isnt there yet. Disadvantages The unpredictability of the wind is a major issue. Many think that the worlds weather is changing and becoming more unpredictable. If the areas that are high in wind become less so once wind farms are erect what would happen? A backup energy source would require a traditional polluting method of energy generation and would rather defeat the object! Apart from the initial costs already discussed you have to consider the planning permissions also. It isnt always straight forward for a wind farm to spring up. Even home wind turbines will require permission from the council. How much electricity generated is dependent on the speed and direction of the wind which isnt something that we can control. Location is vitally important but not always available and depending on the location you need to consider, obstructions and the height of the turbine. There are many groups who feel that wind turbines cause damage to habitats and can be dangerous to birds. There are also those who despise their appearance and what they do to the environment aesthetically. Noise pollution is also an issue although there are wind turbines that seem to have minimised if not eradicated this problem. There arent as many sites available as initially thought and those people who wish to have a personal wind turbine are required to test the wind speed for 3 months with an anemometer. Power Output To calculate the amount of power a turbine can actually generate from the wind, you need to know the wind speed at the turbine site and the turbine power rating. Most large turbines produce their maximum power at wind speeds around 15 meters per second (33 mph). Considering steady wind speeds, its the diameter of the rotor that determines how much energy a turbine can generate. Keep in mind that as a rotor diameter increases the height of the tower increases as well, which means more access to faster winds. Rotor Size and Maximum Power Output Rotor Diameter (meters) 10 17 27 33 40 44 48 54 64 72 80 Sources: Danish Wind Industry Association, American Wind Energy Association At 33 mph, most large turbines generate their rated power capacity, and at 45 mph (20 meters per second), most large turbines shut down. There are a number of safety systems that can turn off a turbine if wind speeds threaten the structure, including a remarkably simple vibration sensor used in some turbines that basically consists of a metal ball attached to a chain, poised on a tiny pedestal. If the turbine starts vibrating above a certain threshold, the ball falls off the pedestal, pulling on the chain and triggering a shut down. This information from howstuffworks.com shows how the rotor dimensions and its proportionality to power out. It portrays that an ideal wind speed is 33 mph. This is before it becomes dangerous. As already discussed a wind speed of about half of this is mandatory before you even think about building a wind turbine. When monitoring or calculating power output you must consider the correlation between it, the wind speed and the frequency of the wind speed. Below is a chart taken from Professor Tony Days presentation on wind turbines: The blue graph illustrates how the frequency and value of wind speed and what it means for power output. It confirms that at an average wind speed of about 6-8 metres per second, you can produce about 300 300kW of power. At this specific location you only get this about 8-9% of the time. And in that lies a problem. For wind power to be considered a major alternative you need a more frequent and reliable wind speed to ensure high levels of power is generated all the time. More to the point, the power that would be generated by wind farm for example given turbines of this specification; it would be a struggle to power a city let alone a nation. Whats next? There is clearly some way to go if the future of wind turbines is to overcome some peoples turbulent views. There are ideas in the pipeline and future design which will go some way to harnessing the energy more effectively to produce more power. Whilst residential wind turbines take the best part of a decade for you to see pay back on an investment the American Wind Energy Association suggest that payback can been seen a lot earlier with regard to wind farms. Overall, wind farms cost in the area of $1,000 per kW of capacity, so a wind farm consisting of seven 1.8-MW turbines runs about $12.6 million. The payback time for a large wind turbine is about three to eight months, according to the American Wind Energy Association. If this information is to be believed this payback time is reasonable but this does not take into consideration the initial cost of land, transmission lines and other infrastructure that are crucial to wind power systems. As time has gone on there have been some quite dramatic falls in the costs of wind energy. As technology improves the trend will continue it is just a question of how quickly. New ideas and designs are coming to light now also, for example the vertical axis turbine which seems to bare some advantages over its older brother is being reinvented all the time despite being a fairly new idea. Its design allows you to place the gear box and generators closer to the ground and there is no need to orient them in the direction of the wind. Also they can be kept closer together as they do not have a slowing affect on the air that a horizontal turbine would which means more can be build within a given space. Every Government wants to increase the amount of power generated by wind but the major stumbling block is always economic. Especially right now, cost of steel and turbines has increased immensely following the economic downturn so initial costs of a wind turbine are even higher. Even though wind will never run out, this makes it very difficult to budget for big plans to be implemented. Conclusion Whilst wind turbines present a great argument for clean reusable energy, there are issues that are positioned on the odds against category. It is widely believed that despite signs showing a change in the planets eco system the promotion of wind turbines has come about because of lobbying by industrialists as opposed to straightforward economics or science. Have we really caused as much damage as the green amongst us have suggested? Or has there been an overreaction? One issue you cannot ignore is that fossil fuel is exhaustible, maybe not in our life time but we certainly owe it to those who will inherit our planet to ensure they enjoy energy in the same way that we have. Costs of these machines are initially very high and many are only designed to last 25 years which adds a sting to an otherwise acceptable running cost. At the moment when running wind turbines coal generated power still has to be available as a backup which begs the question, are we really reducing our carbon emissions? Also the power generation from traditional methods is high and whilst it lasts is constant. There are no off days that can come about where the weather is concerned. Many also despise the look wind turbines and are against the damage visually that a wind farm can cause. There is also a very real danger to birds and the migration of birds as many have been injured by this new phenomenon. In an ideal world if wind power was to take over all wind farms will need to operate at 100% capacity 100% of the time which just cannot happen. The realistic operating maximum is about 50% and many wind farms fall below that now based on data from Ofgem, the energy regulator. Wind power is certainly one option we can turn to on a small scale its attributes will come in handy to an extent. But unless there are vast improvements in the technology and power output turbines will remain an entity that is perceived as useless by many because it produces derisory amounts of electricity at monumental cost. One could say, Too much wind and not enough puff!.

My Story :: Personal Narrative

As I begin this assignment, I really don’t know what to write. Should I begin with how I was born and rise up in a country that is far away from American? Maybe talking a little bit about my background will help my classmates get to know who I am, and that is the least thing I can do now. I was born in Saigon City, Vietnam, a country located in Southeast Asia, within a big family. My parents have five elder brothers, two sisters before they have me. I had problems after my birth; a little disorder (nothing serious) in my brain caused me some troubles and worry to my parents. It took three years to be cured through continuos visit to my doctor in Saigon City. Those days were really difficult not only for my parents and me, but also for the whole family too because I was submitted to terrible exams according to my age. My family thought that I wouldn’t be able to grow up like other normal kids. However, with the praise of every member in my family, I was healthy after all .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By the time I was ready for kindergarten, my two elder brothers allowed to come to the United States to study aboard. This was a big change in my family because my parent wanted to save money for my brothers’ education. Therefore, they sold our house and asked my two elder’s sister to help them with our family business instead of going to college. The clearest thing I remember about this issue was my sisters not happy with this decision. However, in my country, the idea of women with high education isn’t expected as compare to men. Therefore, I think it is the tradition that effects my parent to decide this way. As for me, I continue to grow through school and the love of my parent. In the school I spent wonderful times with my friends. I used to participate with my group in mom’s day every year dancing. At the same time, I also started to go to my ballet classes. First my mother sent me because she wanted, and when she decided to put m e out of my classes I asked her not to do that. According to my mother, I quit everything to go to my ballet classes, and never I refused to go.

Gene therapy :: essays research papers fc

Genetic disorders have been plaguing people for ages and causing fatalities. However, with new information and research, and something called gene therapy, hope now exists for these unfortunate individuals. Gene therapy is a technique for correcting defective genes responsible for disease development. It has been around for a while now and is getting more advanced with time. Experimentation is an ongoing process with gene therapy. Ethical issues are something that has been accompanying the procedure since it has been used. New facts on gene therapy continue to be uncovered as we speak.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To start off, an overview of why people need gene therapy should be covered. Each of us carries about half a dozen defective genes. However, we remain ignorant to this fact unless we are among the millions of people who have a genetic disorder. About one in ten people has, or will develop some time later in life, an inherited genetic abnormality. And approximately two thousand eight hundred specific conditions are known to be caused by defects in just one of the patient’s genes. Some single gene disorders are pretty common, such as cystic fibrosis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most people do not suffer harmful effects from our defective genes because we carry two copies of nearly all genes. One is inherited from our mother and the other from our father. The only exceptions to this rule are the genes found on the male sex chromosomes. â€Å"Males have one X and one Y chromosome, the former from the mother and the latter from the father. So each cell has only one copy of the genes on these chromosomes. In the majority of cases, one normal gene is enough to avoid all the symptoms of disease. If the gene that may be harmful is recessive, then its normal counterpart will carry out all the tasks assigned to both. A disease will develop only if someone inherits two copies of the recessive gene from their parents.† (Web source #3) In other terms, if the gene is dominant, it alone can produce the disease, even if the counterpart is normal. Finally, there are the X chromosome-linked genetic diseases. Because males have only one copy of the genes from this chromosome, there are no others available to fulfill the defective gene’s function. Hemophilia is a common result of this.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To continue, how gene therapy works, should be explained. There are several different approaches scientists may use to correct faulty genes with therapy.

War on Drugs Essays -- Illegal Drugs Narcotics essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout history drugs have been nothing but a social problem, a burden per say. From Edgar Allen Poe smoking opium in an attempt to make his poetry more creative, to Vietnam soldiers coming back from the war addicted to heroin. Narcotics was not a serious issue at the time, only a small hand full of people were actually doing the drugs, and they were just simply looked down upon. It was not until the late nineteen sixties when recreational drug use became fashionable among young, white, middle class American citizens, that the United States Government â€Å"put it’s foot down†. (pbs.com) They started slowly ,developing agencies like the (BNDD) Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, which was founded in 1968 by the Linden Johnson administration. Congress also started passing laws like the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act in 1970.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was not until June 17, 1971 when the war on drugs truly began. At a press conference in the White House, President Richard J. Nixon officially declared war on drugs. He stated, â€Å"drug abuse is public enemy, number one in the United States.† He also announced the creation of (SAODAP) Special Action Office for Drug Abuse Prevention. Three years later on August 9, 1974, President Nixon resigns, but not before founding one the greatest assets for the war on drugs, the (DEA) Drug Enforcement Agency. Established in July of 1973, this â€Å"super agency† (pbs.com) consisted of agents from the CIA, Customs and ODALE. This agency was designed to handle all aspects of the drug problem in America and would be headed Myles Ambrose.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the first years of the program the DEA was established their main focus was to stop the flow of marijuana from Mexico to America. Around the mid seventies the â€Å"enemy† face began to change, the enemy was now cocaine and it was coming from the country of Colombia. On November 22, 1975 the Colombian police seized over 600 kilos of cocaine from a small plane at the Cali Airport. The plane was believed to be headed to Miami, Florida. The amount of cocaine that was seized that day was the largest cocaine bust to date.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The DEA, along with other agencies, are still fighting cocaine and many other drugs to this day. One of the reasons the war on drugs is lasting so long is because of the cost; the war on drugs is a very expense war. In the past, the government has spent arou... ...m heroin addiction. Psychiatrist Dr. Robert DuPont is a pioneer doctor in drug abuse treatment, he perfumed studies in Washington D.C. in 1969 of heroin addicts, and then convinced the mayor to allow him to provide methadone to the heroin addicts this resulted in the city’s crime rate dropping.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The cost of addiction can be devastating to the person and the person’s family. People trade in their cars; clothing and shelter just to get a fix for their addiction. The cost of rehabilitation is outrageous, unless you are attending a free one it can cost up to 1000 dollars a weak.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many programs out in the public today for soul purpose of keeping people clean, off drugs. Programs such as Betty Ford, D.A.R.E, and many more are set up to keep people from drug abuse.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the end the war on drugs is not a war to be won or lost, it’s with in the people, rather if they want to do drugs or not. The importation of illicit substances into the United States is an impossibility. There’s over 2,000 miles of border along the Mexican border and the coastal areas, thousands of miles; there is no possible way to stop the importation of drugs into this country.

American Literature: A Discussion

American Literature has come a long way. It dates back as far as the pre-colonization-period America which is contrary to the current belief of almost everyone that English has always been the language in America. Although it was noted that â€Å"some fifty years after the political establishment of the United States, the concept of an American literature barely existed† (Delbanco), American literature did exist and is still existing. Literature as a communication involving some degree of emotional or aesthetic response is both an independent discipline and one of the tools of anthropology.The latter is a description and explanation of social behavior in every possible environment-from the primitive to the sophisticated-in every part of the world. (Dennis and Aycock 41) In this regard, looking at how literature emerged and how it evolved, identifies the kind of society and the kind of people living in a certain era. II. Evolution & Era The discovery and/or development of a cer tain type of literature did not just happen in a flash. American Literature, the different types of it, sprouted in a seasoned manner.This means that there would not be political writings, or none of them would be popular, if there were no political issues looming around the corner. It is quite amusing to know that American writing (in English) started not as a seriously intended literary piece but as a work â€Å"chiefly for the benefit of readers in the mother country. † (â€Å"American Literature†). These were the English travelers and explorers who became Americans during those olden times, circa 1583 to 1763. Following is the timeline of the American Literature (Trent):1. English Travelers and Explorers, 1583-1763 – retaining their own language as they travelled to America and became Americans while chiefly influencing the literature with this language: the heritage of the English race; 2. The Historians, 1607-1783 – this was the period of gentlemen adventurers writing about America’s colonies; 3. The Puritan Divines, 1620-1720 – again, Englishmen who gave their intellects to a strict scheme of doctrinaire theology, and gave up their freedom to the letter of the Hebraic Scriptures; 4.Edwards – was a special time when he, Edwards, inscribed a sequence of reflections, foundation to a great metaphysical discourse of his own; 5. Philosophers and Divines, 1720-1789 -a traditional categorization of the human ability giving reason for the American thought in the eighteenth century, which is believed to have led to the overthrow of high Calvinism: those who went after the intelligence were the rationalists, or deists; those who went after receptivity or sensibility were the â€Å"hot† men, or enthusiasts while those who went after the will were the moral or ethical reformers.6. Colonial Newspapers and Magazines, 1704-1775 – the knowledge of and about Europe had erupted so commonly through colonial new spapers; 7. American Political Writing, 1760-1789 — this was the period of â€Å"storm and stress†, of â€Å"revolution and evolution†, bringing forth a literature dominated by politically-themed content. Most of the topics involved â€Å"the nature of the British constitution, the formulation of colonial rights, and the elaboration of schemes of government and administration†;8. The Beginnings of Verse, 1610-1808- the beginning covered early colonial verse starting in 1610 while in 1700 it began with transition in purpose, subject, and style and later on during, the beginnings of nationalism that is related to the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765 ending with the publication of Bryant's Embargo in 1808. 9. Travellers and Observers, 1763-1846- this was the literature of travels, brand new, wide-ranging, and sophisticated, taking its magic from the sense of wonder;10. The Early Drama, 1756-1860 –The American native drama, even though it antedated the novel and the short story, has arrived only during the latter half of the eighteenth century having Androborus in 1714, which was noted to be a satirical embarrassment. 11. Early Essayists-during this period the first essays that were in print in colonial newspapers were written with a cognizant ethical purpose. 12.The time of Washington Irving (April 3, 1783 – November 28, 1859)-a well-known American author, essayist, biographer and historian of the early 19th century who authored â€Å"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow† and â€Å"Rip Van Winkle†; 13. The time of Bryant – an American who has the gift of poetic genius, and writing verses that last; 14. Fiction/Novels-the moment for literary lies;† that they served no virtuous purpose; that they melted rigorous minds; that they crowded out better books; that they painted adventure too romantic and love too vehement, and so unfitted†¦Ã¢â‚¬ III. The Role of Printing Press Taking into consideration the lack of other means of publication those days, early American literature succeeded with the big help of the printing press. Some Americans even had an undying zeal for literary outputs that they were â€Å"stimulated by a desire to render Washington City as well the seat of literature as of government, a number of gentlemen have formed themselves into a ‘ Printing and Bookselling Company† (McMurtrie 266). It may appear funny but it is true. IV. Current Scenario & Conclusionâ€Å"Who in the four corners of the globe reads an American book? † (Edinburgh Review, cited Delbanco) Contrary to this insult, there are still the likes of Twain that many people all over the world know and many hunger for their literary pieces. Another noted American literary figure is Toni Morrison, a Nobel Prize awardee for literature. She is noted to be â€Å"a public intellectual, she's influenced how we think about race and storytelling †¦ how we use language, what we do with lan guage, how we keep language alive and well.â€Å"(â€Å"Toni Morrison Society Honors† 15). Thus, American Literature, no matter how it is being viewed, is sure to be existent, alive and persisting. Works Cited â€Å"American Literature. † The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. 2009. Questia. Web. 19 July 2010. Delbanco, Andrew. â€Å"American Literature: A Vanishing Subject?. † Daedalus 135. 2 (2006): 22+. Questia. Web. 19 July 2010. Dennis, Philip A. , and Wendell Aycock, eds. Literature and Anthropology. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University Press, 1989. Questia. Web. 19 July 2010. McMurtrie, Douglas C.A History of Printing in the United States: The Story of the Introduction of the Press and of Its History and Influence during the Pioneer Period in Each State of the Union. Vol. 2. New York: R. R. Bowker, 1936. Questia. Web. 19 July 2010. â€Å"Toni Morrison Society Honors Nobel Laureate with 70th Birthday Tribute. † Black Issues in Higher Education 29 Mar. 20 01: 15. Questia. Web. 19 July 2010. Trent, William Peterfield, John Erskine, Stuart P. Sherman, and Carl Van Doren, eds. The Cambridge History of American Literature. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1917. Questia. Web. 19 July 2010.